PROFILE
OFFICIAL NAME:
Republic of Zimbabwe
Geography
Area: 390,580 sq. km. (150,760 sq. mi.),
slightly larger than Montana.
Cities: Capital--Harare
(pronounced Ha-RAR-e), pop. 1.5 million. Other
towns--Bulawayo, Chitungwiza, Mutare,
Gweru, Kwekwe, Masvingo, Marondera.
Terrain: Desert and savanna.
Climate: Mostly subtropical.
People
Nationality: Noun
and adjective--Zimbabwean (sing.),
Zimbabweans (pl.).
Population (2008 est.): 8 to 9 million.
Annual growth rate (2006 World Bank est.): 0.8%.
(Note: the population growth rate is depressed
by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated
to be 15.6% and a high level of net emigration.)
Ethnic groups: Shona 71%, Ndebele 16%, other
African 11%, white 1%, mixed and Asian 1%.
Religions: Christianity 75%, offshoot Christian
sects, animist, and Muslim.
Languages: English (official), Shona, Ndebele.
Education: Attendance--mandatory
for primary level. Adult
literacy--90.5% (2004 est.).
Health: Infant
mortality rate--51.7/1,000 (2006 est.). Life
expectancy--men 37 (2006), women 34 (2006).
Government
Type: Parliamentary.
Constitution: December 21, 1979.
Independence: April 18, 1980.
Branches: Executive--President
(chief of state and head of government),
Cabinet. Legislative--bicameral
(House of Assembly and Senate). Judicial--High
Court, Court of Appeal, local and customary
courts.
Administrative subdivisions: Town Councils and
District Councils.
Main political parties: Zimbabwe African
National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF);
Movement for Democratic Change (MDC); United
People's Party (UPP).
Economy
GDP (2007 IMF est.): U.S. $1.437 billion.
Real GDP growth rate (2007 IMF est.): -6.1%.
Real per capita GDP: Reliable estimates of
current GDP and population size are unavailable.
Avg. inflation rate: 1,694,000% year-on-year,
May 2008, by official accounts; private sector
estimates are roughly one and half times the
official figure.
Natural resources: Deposits of more than 40
minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver,
platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares
of forest (2000).
Agriculture (15% of GDP): Types
of crops and livestock--corn, cotton,
tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugarcane, peanuts,
cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.
Industry: manufacturing, public administration,
commerce, mining, transport and communication.
Trade (2007): U.S.
exports--U.S. $105.2 million. U.S.
imports--U.S. $71.8 million. Partners (2000
est.)--South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%,
U.S. 8%. Total
imports (2004)--U.S.
$1.989 billion: most of these imports were
construction and agricultural machinery,
transportation equipment, data processing
equipment and software, industrial machinery,
pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general
manufactured products. Major
suppliers--South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%,
Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%. (Although China is now
said to be the second-largest trading partner,
no statistics are available.)
PEOPLE AND HISTORY
Primarily of the Bantu group of south and
central Africa, the black Zimbabweans are
divided into two major language groups, which
are subdivided into several ethnic groups. The
Mashona (Shona speakers), who constitute about
75% of the population, have lived in the area
the longest and are the majority language group.
The Matabele (Sindebele speakers), representing
about 20% of the population and centered in the
southwest around Bulawayo, arrived within the
last 150 years. An offshoot of the South African
Zulu group, they maintained control over the
Mashona until the white occupation of Rhodesia
in 1890.
More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily
of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after
World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and
other European minorities, including Portuguese
from Mozambique, also are present. Until the
mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white
immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a
steady emigration resulted in a loss of more
than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992.
Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and
early 2000s reduced the white population to less
than 50,000. English, the official language, is
spoken by the white population and understood,
if not always used, by more than half of the
black population.
Zimbabwe boasts one of Africa's highest literacy
rates. Primary and secondary schools were
segregated until 1979. In the first decade after
independence in 1980, the educational system was
systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean
Government, which was committed to providing
free public education to all citizens on an
equal basis. Though in the late 1970s only 50%
of the black children (5-19 years old) were
listed officially as attending rural schools,
today most children attend primary school
despite the fact that school fees are now
charged for all schools at all levels. Primary
through post-secondary enrollment has expanded
from 1 million to about 2.9 million since
independence. There is an impressive network of
independent private schools and church-run
mission schools that have significantly more
resources and thus significantly higher school
fees than government-run schools. Higher
education is offered at seven state-run
universities, the most prominent being the
University of Zimbabwe in Harare and the
National University of Science and Technology in
Bulawayo, and three private church-run
universities, Africa University (Methodist),
Catholic University, and Solusi University
(Seventh Day Adventist). There is also a large
network of teacher-training, nursing, and
polytechnic colleges.
Early History
Archaeologists have found Stone-Age implements
and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a
suggestion of human habitation for many
centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings
provide evidence of early civilization. The most
impressive of these sites is the "Great
Zimbabwe" ruins, after which the country is
named, located near Masvingo. Evidence suggests
that these stone structures were built between
the 9th and 13th centuries A.D. by indigenous
Africans who had established trading contacts
with commercial centers on Africa's southeastern
coast.
In the 16th century, the Portuguese were the
first Europeans to attempt colonization of
south-central Africa, but the hinterland lay
virtually untouched by Europeans until the
arrival of explorers, missionaries, ivory
hunters, and traders some 300 years later.
Meanwhile, mass migrations of indigenous peoples
took place. Successive waves of more highly
developed Bantu peoples from equatorial regions
supplanted the original inhabitants and are the
ancestors of the region's Africans today.
British Settlement and Administration
In 1888, Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for
mineral rights from local chiefs. Later that
year, the area that became Southern and Northern
Rhodesia was proclaimed a British sphere of
influence. The British South Africa Company was
chartered in 1889, and the settlement of
Salisbury (now Harare, the capital) was
established in 1890. In 1895, the territory was
formally named Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes under
the British South Africa Company's
administration.
Following the abrogation of the company's
charter in 1923, Southern Rhodesia's white
settlements were given the choice of being
incorporated into the Union of South Africa or
becoming a separate entity within the British
Empire. The settlers rejected incorporation, and
Southern Rhodesia was formally annexed by the
United Kingdom that year. Until 1980, Rhodesia
was an internally self-governing colony with its
own legislature, civil service, armed forces,
and police. Although Rhodesia was never
administered directly from London, the United
Kingdom always retained the right to intervene
in the affairs of the colony, particularly in
matters affecting Africans.
After 1923, European immigrants concentrated on
developing Rhodesia's rich mineral resources and
agricultural potential. The settlers' demand for
more land led in 1934 to the passage of the
first of a series of land apportionment acts
that reserved certain areas for Europeans.
In September 1953, Southern Rhodesia was joined
in a multiracial Central African Federation with
the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland in an effort to pool resources and
markets. Although the federation flourished
economically, the African population, who feared
they would not be able to achieve
self-government with the federal structure
dominated by White Southern Rhodesians, opposed
it. The federation was dissolved at the end of
1963 after much crisis and turmoil, and Northern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the independent
states of Zambia and Malawi in 1964.
Unilateral Declaration Of Independence (UDI)
The European electorate in Rhodesia, however,
showed little willingness to accede to African
demands for increased political participation
and progressively replaced more moderate party
leaders. In April 1964, Prime Minister Winston
Field, accused of not moving rapidly enough to
obtain independence from the United Kingdom, was
replaced by his deputy, Ian Smith. Prime Minster
Smith led his Rhodesian Front Party to an
overwhelming victory in the 1965 elections,
winning all 50 of the first roll seats and
demoralizing the more moderate European
opposition.
Although prepared to grant independence to
Rhodesia, the United Kingdom insisted that the
authorities at Salisbury first demonstrate their
intention to move toward eventual majority rule.
Desiring to keep their dominant position, the
white Rhodesians refused to give such
assurances. On November 11, 1965, after lengthy
and unsuccessful negotiations with the British
Government, Prime Minister Smith issued a
Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)
from the United Kingdom.
Post-UDI Events
The British Government considered the UDI
unconstitutional and illegal but made clear that
it would not use force to oppose it. On November
12, 1965, the United Nations also determined the
Rhodesian Government and UDI to be illegal and
called on member states to refrain from
assisting or recognizing the Smith regime. The
British Government imposed sanctions on Rhodesia
and requested other nations to do the same.
On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council,
for the first time in history, imposed mandatory
economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia's
primary exports including ferrochrome and
tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions
list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor
vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to
Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council
unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by
imposing an almost total embargo on all trade
with, investments in, or transfers of funds to
Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air
transport to the territory.
In the early 1970s, informal attempts at
settlement were renewed between the United
Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration.
Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and
the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and
Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to
negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In
addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla
activity, which began in the late 1960s,
increased dramatically after 1972, causing
destruction, economic dislocation, casualties,
and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major
African nationalists groups--the Zimbabwe
African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe
African National Union (ZANU), which split away
from ZAPU in 1963--were united into the
"Patriotic Front" and combined their military
forces, at least nominally.
In 1976, because of a combination of
embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure
of guerilla activity, independence and majority
rule in the neighboring former Portuguese
territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic
initiative, the Smith government agreed in
principle to majority rule and to a meeting in
Geneva with black nationalist leaders to
negotiate a final settlement of the conflict.
Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting
included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader
Robert Mugabe, United African National Council
(UANC) chairman bishop Abel Muzorewa, and former
ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The
meeting failed to find a basis for agreement
because of Smith's inflexibility and the
inability of the black leaders to form a common
political front.
On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American
plan was put forward with proposals for majority
rule, neutrally administered with
pre-independence elections, a democratic
constitution and the formation of an integrated
army. Reactions were mixed, but no party
rejected them. In the interim, on March 3, 1978,
the Smith administration signed the "internal
settlement" agreement in Salisbury with Bishop
Muzorewa, Rev. Sithole, and Chief Jeremiah
Chirau. The agreement provided for qualified
majority rule and elections with universal
suffrage. Following elections in April 1979, in
which his UANC party won a majority, Bishop
Muzorewa assumed office on June 1, becoming
"Zimbabwe-Rhodesia's" first black prime
minister. However, the installation of the new
black majority government did not end the
guerilla conflict that had claimed more than
20,000 lives since 1972.
Shortly after British Prime Minister Margaret
Thatcher's conservative government took power in
May 1979, the British began a new round of
consultations that culminated in an agreement
among the Commonwealth countries as the basis
for fresh negotiations among the parties and the
British involving a new constitution, free
elections, and independence.
The British and the African parties began
deliberations on a Rhodesian settlement at
Lancaster House in London on September 10, 1979.
On December 10, 1979, in preparation for the
transition under British authority to officially
recognized independence, the "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia"
reverted de facto to colonial status. On
December 12, British Governor Lord Christopher
Soames arrived in Salisbury to reassert British
authority over the colony. His arrival signaled
the end of the Rhodesian rebellion and the
"internal settlement," as well as the beginning
of Zimbabwe's transition to independence. The
United Kingdom lifted all remaining sanctions
against Zimbabwe that day. The United States
lifted sanctions effective December 16.
On December 21, after 3 months of hard
bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at
Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new
elections, a transition period under British
rule, and a new constitution implementing
majority rule while protecting minority rights.
The agreement specified that upon the granting
of independence, the country's name would be
Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council
endorsed the settlement agreement and formally
voted unanimously to call on member nations to
remove sanctions.
During the transition period, nine political
parties campaigned for the February 27-29
pre-independence elections. The elections were
supervised by the British Government and
monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom
concluded that, under the prevailing
circumstances, the elections were free and fair
and reflected the will of the people. Robert
Mugabe's ZANU (PF) party won an absolute
majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first
government.
In a series of public statements during the
transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe
indicated that he was committed to a process of
national reconciliation and reconstruction as
well as moderate socioeconomic change. His
priorities were to integrate the various armed
forces, reestablish social services and
education in rural areas, and resettle the
estimated one million refugees and displaced
persons. Mugabe also announced that his
government would begin investigating ways of
reversing past discriminatory policies in land
distribution, education, employment, and wages.
Mugabe stated that Zimbabwe would follow a
nonaligned foreign policy and would pursue a
pragmatic relationship with South Africa. He
noted that while Zimbabwe opposed apartheid and
would support democratic change in South Africa,
it would not provide bases for anti-South
African guerillas.
The British Government formally granted
independence to Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980. Most
nations recognized Zimbabwe following
independence. The United States was the first
nation to open an embassy in Salisbury (Harare)
on that day. Parliament convened for the first
time on May 13, 1980. Zimbabwe became a member
of the United Nations on August 25, 1980.
In seeking national reconciliation, Prime
Minister Mugabe's first cabinet comprised
members of ZANU-PF, PF-ZAPU, and independent
white members of parliament (MPs) and senators.
The government embarked on an ambitious
reconstruction and development program and
instituted increases in minimum wages. Land
redistribution proceeded under four experimental
models on land that the government had purchased
at market rates from willing sellers.
Zimbabwe Since Independence
Prime Minister Mugabe's policy of reconciliation
was generally successful during the country's
first two years of independence, as the former
political and military opponents began to work
together. Although additional blacks were hired
to fill new places in the civil service, there
was no retribution for those whites who had
worked for the Smith regime. Smith and many of
his associates held seats in the parliament
where they participated freely in debates.
Likewise, Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe's rival as leader
of the nationalist forces, was included in the
first cabinet along with several other members
of PF-ZAPU.
Splits soon developed, however. In 1981, several
MPs from Smith's party left to sit as
"independents," signifying that they did not
automatically accept his anti-government
posture. More importantly, government security
officials discovered large caches of arms and
ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, and
Nkomo and his followers were accused of plotting
to overthrow Mugabe's government. Nkomo and his
closest aides were expelled from the cabinet.
As a result of what they perceived as
persecution of Nkomo (known as "Father
Zimbabwe") and of his party, PF-ZAPU supporters,
some of them deserters from the army, began a
loosely organized and ill-defined campaign of
dissidence against the government. Centering
primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles
who were PF-ZAPU's main followers, this
dissidence continued through 1987 and involved
attacks on government personnel and
installations, armed banditry aimed at
disrupting security and economic life in the
rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.
Occasionally, some demanded that Nkomo and his
colleagues be reinstated in the cabinet. More
frequently, however, dissidents called for the
return of farms and other properties seized from
PF-ZAPU.
Because of the unsettled security situation
immediately after independence and the
continuing anti-government dissidence, the
government kept in force a "state of emergency,"
which was first declared before UDI. This gave
government authorities widespread powers under
the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including
the right to detain persons without charge.
In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in
areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an
attempt to suppress dissidents. Credible reports
surfaced of widespread violence and disregard
for human rights by the security forces during
these operations, and the level of political
tension rose in the country as a result. The
pacification campaign, known as the
"Gukuruhundi," or strong wind, resulted in as
many as 20,000 civilian deaths. Nkomo and his
lieutenants repeatedly denied any connection
with the dissidents and called for an all-party
conference to discuss the political problems
facing the country. In the 1985 elections,
ZANU-PF increased its majority, holding 67 of
the 100 seats. ZANU-PF and PF-ZAPU agreed to
unite in December 1987, and the parties formally
merged in December 1989.
In October 1987, in accordance with the
Lancaster House Accords, the constitution was
amended to end the separate roll for white
voters and to replace the whites whose reserved
seats had been abolished; among the new members
were 15 whites in the Senate and House of
Assembly. Elections in March 1990 resulted in
another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his
party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats.
However, voter turnout was only 54%, and the
campaign was not free and fair although the
actual balloting was. Not satisfied with a de
facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the
ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the
creation of a de jure one-party state in
September 1990 and lost. The state of emergency
was lifted in July 1990.
After the remaining restrictions of the
Lancaster House agreement expired on April 18,
1990, the government embarked on a campaign of
amending the existing constitution. Both the
judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely
criticized some of the first amendments, which
were enacted in April 1991, because they
restored corporal and capital punishment and
denied recourse to the courts in cases of
compulsory purchase of land by the government.
During the 1990s students, trade unionists and
workers often demonstrated to express their
discontent with the government. Students
protested in October 1990 against proposals for
an increase in government control of
universities and again in May 1991 and May 1992,
when they clashed with police. Trade unionists
and workers were also vocal critics of the
government during this time. In June 1992,
police prevented trade unionists from holding
anti-government demonstrations. In 1994, there
was widespread industrial unrest. In August and
September 1996, thousands of civil servants
demanding salary increases organized a national
strike and in October and November of the same
year, nurses and junior doctors went on strike
over salary issues. On November 14, 1997, about
50,000 war veterans demanded and received
compensation equivalent to about U.S. $1,300 per
person for their war service. This immense and
unbudgeted expenditure created a huge fiscal
deficit. The Zimbabwe dollar lost more than half
its value on that day, and the Zimbabwe Stock
Exchange collapsed. This event marked the
beginning of Zimbabwe's ongoing macro-economic
crisis.
In part through its control of the media, the
huge parastatal sector of the economy, and the
security forces, the government managed to keep
organized political opposition to a minimum
through most of the 1990s. Beginning in 1999,
however, Zimbabwe experienced a period of
considerable political and economic upheaval.
Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF
government had grown, in part due to worsening
economic and human rights conditions. The
opposition was led by the Movement for
Democratic Change (MDC), which was established
in September 1999.
The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition
to the Mugabe government came in February 2000,
when a referendum was held on a draft
constitution proposed by the government. Among
its elements, the new constitution would have
permitted President Mugabe to seek two
additional terms in office, granted government
officials immunity from prosecution, and
authorized government seizure of white-owned
land. The referendum was handily defeated.
Shortly thereafter, the government, through a
loosely organized group of war veterans,
sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution
program often characterized by forced expulsion
of white farmers and violence against both
farmers and farm employees.
Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were
marred by localized violence, and claims of
electoral irregularities and government
intimidation of opposition supporters.
Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57
of 120 seats in the National Assembly.
The March 2002 presidential election was
preceded by months of intensive violence and
intimidation against MDC supporters, and more
than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters,
were killed. President Mugabe was declared the
winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a
56% to 42% margin. Most international observers
condemned the election as seriously flawed--the
pre-election environment was neither free nor
fair, and the election itself was marred by
significant fraud and rigging--but regional
opinions were mixed. Soon after the election,
the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe's
victory, citing flaws in electoral laws,
electoral irregularities and pre-election
violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had
not yet been decided.
As a result of the 2002 election, the United
States, the EU, and other European countries
imposed travel restrictions against senior
Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of
arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze
the financial assets of selected ruling party
officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe
from council meetings for one year after its
election observer team found the election
neither free nor fair. At the mid-term
suspension review in March 2003, the
three-country committee charged with deciding
Zimbabwe's fate decided to continue the
suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting
in December 2003. At this meeting, despite
vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe
was not invited to attend the meeting and the
Commonwealth decided to continue with the
suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe
withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.
Following the 2002 presidential election, the
political climate remained tense and intensely
polarized. Violence escalated in the run up to
rural council elections in September 2002 and
various parliamentary by-elections that year.
Parliamentary by-elections in Kuwadzana,
Highfield, Zengeza, and Lupane in 2003 were
marred by widespread intimidation and beatings.
The government also passed legislation that
curtailed free speech, free press, and rights of
assembly. In March 2003, MDC leaders Morgan
Tsvangirai, Welshman Ncube, and Renson Gasela
went on trial for treason. Charges against Ncube
and Gasela were subsequently dropped and in
October 2004 Tsvangirai was found not guilty. In
August 2005, the government dropped a second
charge of treason against Tsvangirai.
The government subscribed to the electoral
principles of the Southern African Development
Community (SADC) in 2004 but failed to implement
key elements of the principles in advance of the
2005 parliamentary elections. The campaign
period and election day were largely
non-violent, but the elections were not free and
fair. The election process was marred by
repressive legislation that limits freedom of
speech and assembly; millions of expatriate
Zimbabweans were not permitted to vote; the
government used food distributions to influence
an increasingly hungry population; an
astonishingly high 10% (as high as 30% in some
areas) of would-be voters were turned away; and
discrepancies in officially announced results
and the government's refusal to release key
voting data led to questions about the
possibility of fraud.
In May 2005, the government began Operation
Murambatsvina (also known as Operation Restore
Order), ostensibly to rid urban areas of illegal
structures, illegal business enterprises, and
criminal activities. A UN Special Envoy sent to
Zimbabwe to assess the scope and impact of
operation estimated that some 700,000 people
nationwide lost their homes, their source of
livelihood, or both. Families and traders,
especially at the beginning of the operation,
were often given no notice before police
destroyed their homes and businesses. Others
were able to salvage some possessions and
building materials but often had nowhere to go,
despite the government's statement that people
should be returning to their rural homes.
Thousands of families were left unprotected in
the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter. The
government interfered with non-governmental
organization (NGO) efforts to provide emergency
assistance to the displaced in many instances.
Some families were removed to transit camps,
where they had no shelter or cooking facilities
and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary
facilities. The operation continued into July
2005, when the government began a program to
provide housing for the newly displaced. As of
September 2007, housing construction fell far
short of demand, and there were reports that
beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and
ruling party loyalists, not those displaced. The
government campaign of forced evictions
continued in 2006, 2007, and 2008 albeit on a
lesser scale.
In April 2007, South African President Thabo
Mbeki, at the behest of SADC and the
international community, was designated to serve
as mediator between Robert Mugabe's government
and the MDC. The mediation aimed to define a
mutually agreed upon election date and
procedures to rewrite the constitution. While
the mediations were ongoing, Mugabe announced
that "harmonized" elections would be held on
March 29, 2008, despite Morgan Tsvangirai's
protests that the mediation was still underway
and that there was not enough time to campaign.
As in 2005, the pre-election period was not free
and fair. The environment was characterized by
violence and a media environment that heavily
favored Mugabe. Although Tsvangirai was allowed
to campaign, Zimbabwean police did not grant
permission to MDC to hold all of its rallies,
and some MDC activists were intimidated and
beaten in the weeks before the election. Foreign
journalists were not granted permission to cover
the story from Zimbabwe. Election day was
largely peaceful, with international observers
from the African Union, SADC, and the Pan
African Parliament present; observers from
Western nations, including the United States,
were not invited.
The "harmonized" elections for the presidency,
House of Assembly, Senate, and local government
demonstrated a significant shift in the
political environment. MDC secured a majority in
the parliament, giving the MDC control of the
legislative branch. In the presidential race,
MDC's Tsvangirai secured 47.9%, while Mugabe
came in second with 43.2%. Simba Makoni, who
left Mugabe's ZANU-PF party in February 2008 to
run as an independent, received 8.3%. The
results in the presidential race were not
released until May 2, 2008. This lengthy delay
called into question the credibility and
independence of the Zimbabwe Electoral
Commission (ZEC). Initially the MDC challenged
the results, asserting that Tsvangirai had
secured the majority of votes needed to win the
presidency. Because no candidate secured the
50%-plus-one needed, a runoff was set for June
27, 2008.
As of early June 2008, over 50 Zimbabweans had
been killed, at least 2,000 injured, and over
30,000 displaced as a result of widespread
post-election violence, including
state-sponsored violence. Due to these and other
events, and out of concern for the lives of his
MDC supporters, Tsvangirai announced in late
June that he would not contest the runoff
election. Voters went to the polls on June 27,
and Mugabe was inaugurated for a new term as
president on June 29.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Since independence, Zimbabwe has enunciated
and follows a policy of "active nonalignment."
In practice, this has meant that Zimbabwe
usually adhered to positions established by the
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); the Organization of
African Unity (OAU), now the African Union; or,
until it withdrew in 2003, the Commonwealth.
Zimbabwe took a particular interest in the
search for independence for Namibia (South-West
Africa) from South Africa. In addition, as
chairman of the front-line states in southern
Africa, Zimbabwe spoke out vigorously against
the policies of apartheid in South African and
frequently called for the imposition of economic
sanctions against Pretoria. In November 1982,
Zimbabwe was chosen by the OAU to hold one of
the non-permanent seats in the UN Security
Council for the following two years, which
brought it onto the center stage of world events
and gave it much-needed experience in
international affairs. In 1986, Zimbabwe was the
site of the NAM summit meeting; Prime Minister
Mugabe became chairman of that organization,
giving both Mugabe and Zimbabwe added
international visibility and responsibility.
Zimbabwe maintains embassies in the Angola,
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Botswana, Canada,
China, Cuba, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Egypt, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Ghana, India,
Iran, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Kuwait, Malawi,
Malaysia, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia,
South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania,
United Kingdom, the United States, Serbia,
Zambia, Indonesia, Brazil, and Libya.
Fifty-three countries are represented in Harare,
as are several international organizations
including UN institutions, the European Union,
and the World Bank. Zimbabwe is a member of many
international organizations, including the
International Monetary Fund (IMF); African
Development Bank; The World Trade Organization;
Southern African Development Community (SADC);
Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern
Africa (PTA); African Caribbean and Pacific
Countries (ACP, in association with the EU);
Group of 77 (G-77); Group of 15 (G-15); NAM;
African Union (AU); Customs Cooperation Council
(CCC); and the World Federation of Trade Unions.
Shortly after the March 2002 presidential
election, the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe
from leadership councils for one year after the
Commonwealth's election observer team found the
conduct of the election seriously flawed. After
this suspension was upheld in December 2003,
Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.
The IMF closed its Zimbabwe office in October
2004.
Historically, Zimbabwe's closest links have been
with the U.K.; however, in the past eight years,
this relationship has been very strained. The
government has demonized Britain in the press,
blaming the country for Zimbabwe's problems, and
claiming that Britain reneged on promises made
at Lancaster House to provide money for land
reform. As with the U.S., thousands of
Zimbabweans studied in the U.K., and private
links remain close; however, official relations
are strained.
Other West European countries have ties with
Zimbabwe. The Scandinavian countries share
certain philosophical affinities and have
provided much assistance, as have France,
Canada, and the Federal Republic of Germany.
Portugal and Greece maintain links partly
because of the sizable Portuguese and Greek
communities in the country. Similar historical
ties have led to the establishment of relations
with India and Pakistan, and to a lesser extent,
with Bangladesh. The government's "Look East"
policy has led to closer diplomatic relations
with East Asian countries such as Malaysia and
China.
Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with
virtually every African country, although some
ties are closer than others. African nations
with embassies in Harare are Algeria, Angola,
Botswana, D.R.C., Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya,
Libya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria,
South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, and Zambia.
Zimbabwe developed and maintains close ties with
a number of revolutionary states and
organizations. Among these are the People's
Republic of China, Cuba, the Democratic People's
Republic of Korea, Iran, Libya, and the
Palestine Liberation Organization.
GOVERNMENT
According to Zimbabwe's constitution, the
president is head of state and head of
government, and is elected by popular majority
vote. Parliament is bicameral and sits for up to
a 5-year term. On October 1, 2007 Constitutional
Amendment 18, which provides for significant
changes in the country's electoral dispensation,
went into effect. The amendment set out the
framework to harmonize presidential and
parliamentary elections, to reduce the
presidential term of office from 6 years to 5,
to increase the number of seats in the House of
Assembly and in the Senate, to empower
parliament to serve as an electoral college
should the office of president become vacant for
any reason, and to empower the Zimbabwe
Electoral Commission (ZEC) to delimit
parliamentary and local constituencies. The
210-member House of Assembly is entirely elected
by voters in 210 constituencies. Sixty of the 93
Senators are directly elected by voters. Other
Senators include 10 provincial governors and 5
others that are appointed by the president, 16
chiefs that are elected by other chiefs, plus
the president and deputy president of the
Council of Chiefs.
The Zimbabwean constitution institutionalizes
majority rule and protection of minority rights.
The elected government controls senior
appointments in the public service, including
the military and police, and the independent
Public Service Commission is charged with making
appointments at lower levels on an equitable
basis.
The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of
the Supreme Court who, like the other justices,
is appointed by the president on the advice of
the Judicial Service Commission. The
constitution has a bill of rights containing
extensive protection of human rights. The bill
of rights could not be amended for the first 10
years of independence except by unanimous vote
of the parliament.
Zimbabwe is divided into ten provinces, each
administered by a provincial governor appointed
by the president. The provincial administrator
and representatives of several service
ministries assist the provincial governor.
Principal Government Officials
President--Robert Mugabe
Vice Presidents--Joseph Msika and Joice Mujuru
Foreign Minister--Simbarashe Mumbengegwi
Ambassador to the U.S.--Machinvenyika Tobias
Mapuranga
Zimbabwe maintains an embassy in the United
States at 1608 New Hampshire Ave., NW,
Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-332-7100). A
Zimbabwean mission to the United Nations is
located at 19 East 47th St., New York, NY.
ECONOMY
Properly managed, Zimbabwe's wide range of
resources should enable it to support sustained
economic growth. The country has an important
percentage of the world's known reserves of
metallurgical-grade chromite. Other commercial
mineral deposits include coal, platinum,
asbestos, copper, nickel, gold, and iron ore.
However, for the country to benefit from these
mineral deposits, it must attract foreign direct
investment.
In the early 1970s, the economy experienced a
modest boom. Real per capita earnings for blacks
and whites reached record highs, although the
disparity in incomes between blacks and whites
remained, with blacks earning only about
one-tenth as much as whites. After 1975,
however, Rhodesia's economy was undermined by
the cumulative effects of sanctions, declining
earnings from commodity exports, worsening
guerilla conflict, and increasing white
emigration. When Mozambique severed economic
ties, the Smith regime was forced to depend on
South Africa for access to the outside world.
Real gross domestic product (GDP) declined
between 1974 and 1979. An increasing proportion
of the national budget (an estimated 30%-40% per
year) was allocated to defense, and a large
budget deficit raised the public debt burden
substantially.
Following the Lancaster House settlement in
December 1979, Zimbabwe enjoyed a brisk economic
recovery. Zimbabwe inherited one of the
strongest and most complete industrial
infrastructures in sub-Saharan Africa, as well
as rich mineral resources and a strong
agricultural base. Real growth for 1980-81
exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand
for the country's mineral exports and the onset
of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in
1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy
rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in
agricultural production. However it slumped in
1986 to a zero growth rate and registered a 3%
contraction in GDP in 1987 due primarily to
drought and a foreign exchange crisis. Growth in
1988-90 averaged about 4.5%.
Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has
been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better
than that of most African countries. Poor
management of the economy and political turmoil
have led to considerable economic hardships. The
Government of Zimbabwe's chaotic land reform
program, recurrent interference with the
judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price
controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp
drop in investor confidence. Since 1999, the
national economy has contracted by as much as
40%; inflation vaulted over 1,000,000% (year on
year) in May 2008; and there have been
persistent shortages of foreign exchange, fuel,
and food. Direct foreign investment has all but
evaporated. In a desperate attempt to control
inflation, the government forced firms and
supermarkets to reduce prices by half in July
2007, which resulted in severe shortages of
basic and other commodities.
Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the
Zimbabwean economy. Large-scale commercial
farming has been effectively destroyed over the
course of the last eight years under the
government's controversial land reform efforts
starting in 2000. Corn is the largest food crop
and tobacco had traditionally been the largest
export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco
production in 2006, however, slumped to its
lowest level--about 50 million kg--since
independence, off from a peak in 2000 of 237
million kg, before recovering to 73 million kg
in 2007. Gold production, another former key
foreign currency source, was less than one-third
of its 1999 level in 2007. Poor government
management has exacerbated meager corn harvests
in years of drought or floods, resulting in
significant food shortfalls every year since
2001.
Paved roads link the major urban and industrial
centers, but the condition of urban roads and
the unpaved rural road network has deteriorated
significantly since 1995 for lack of
maintenance. Rail lines connect with an
extensive central African railroad network,
although railway track condition has also
worsened in recent years, along with locomotive
availability and utilization. The electric power
supply has become erratic and blackouts are
common due to unreliable or nonexistent coal
supplies to the country's large thermal plants
and power plant breakdowns. Telephone service is
problematic, and new lines are difficult of
obtain. Municipal water supply is also erratic.
The largest industries are metal products, food
processing, chemicals, textiles, clothing,
furniture and plastic goods. Most manufacturers
have sharply scaled back operations due to the
poor operating climate and foreign exchange
shortages. Zimbabwe is not eligible for
preferred trade status under the African Growth
and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Zimbabwean producers
still export lumber products, certain textiles,
chrome alloys, and automobile windscreens to the
U.S.
Zimbabwe is endowed with rich mineral resources.
Exports of gold, asbestos, chrome, coal,
platinum, nickel, and copper could lead to an
economic recovery one day. No commercial
deposits of petroleum have been discovered,
although the country is richly endowed with
coal-bed methane gas that has yet to be
exploited.
With international attractions such as Victoria
Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake
Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism
historically has been a significant segment of
the economy and contributor of foreign exchange.
The sector has contracted sharply since 1999,
however, due to the country's declining
international image.
Energy Resources
With considerable hydroelectric power potential
and plentiful coal deposits for thermal power
station, Zimbabwe is less dependent on oil as an
energy source than most other comparably
industrialized countries, but it still imports
40% of its electric power needs from surrounding
countries--primarily Mozambique. Only about 15%
of Zimbabwe's total energy consumption is
accounted for by oil, all of which is imported.
Zimbabwe imports about 1.2 billion liters of oil
per year. Zimbabwe also has substantial coal
reserves that are utilized for power generation,
and coal-bed methane deposits recently
discovered in Matabeleland province are greater
than any known natural gas field in Southern or
Eastern Africa. In recent years, poor economic
management and low foreign currency reserves
have led to serious fuel shortages.
DEFENSE
At independence, then-Prime Minister
Mugabe declared integrating Zimbabwe's then
three armed forces as one of his government's
top priorities. A unified army was created by
combining the Zimbabwe African National
Liberation Army (ZANLA), the Zimbabwe Peoples'
Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), and the Rhodesian
Security Forces (RSF). In July 1994, the
combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF)
Headquarters was created. Currently the armed
forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and
are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force
(AFZ).
The Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF) is under the
command of the president, who is the
commander-in-chief of the Defense Forces. He is
assisted by the Minister of Defense, who is
responsible for the administrative and
logistical support of the Defense Forces, and
the commander of the Defense Forces, who
maintains operational control of the Defense
Forces. Subordinate to the commander of the
Defense Forces are the commander of the Zimbabwe
National Army (ZNA) and the commander of the Air
Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ).
The ZNA is authorized 40,000 members but
endstrength estimates as of June 2008 indicated
the ZNA had about 30,000 members serving. The
ZNA's operational forces are based in Harare,
Bulawayo, Masvingo, and Mutare. Operational
forces include five infantry brigades, artillery
brigade, mechanized brigade, field artillery
regiment, engineer regiment, air defense
regiment, commando regiment, and one airborne
battalion. Today, the ZNA is beset by shortages
of supplies, including food. It is mostly
under-trained and its equipment is aged, not
particularly reliable, and largely immobile.
The AFZ is authorized 5,000 members, but only
4,000 were on active duty as of June 2008. It is
estimated that half of Zimbabwe's aircraft are
mission capable.
The Zimbabwe Republic Police numbers 25,000. The
force is organized by province, and is comprised
of uniformed national police, the Criminal
Investigation Department, and traffic police. It
also includes specialized support units
including the (paramilitary) Police Support Unit
and riot police and a Police Internal Security
and Intelligence unit. The police
commissioner-general exercises overall command
of the force.
The U.S. Congress terminated support for
military cooperation programs in 2001.
Presently, the U.S. has no military-to-military
cooperation with Zimbabwe other than through the
President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief
(PEPFAR) program.
U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS
After the Unilateral Declaration of
Independence in November 1965, the United States
recalled its Consul General from Salisbury,
closed the U.S. Information Service (USIS)
library, and withdrew its Agency for
International Development (USAID) and trade
promotion officials. After 1965, the small
remaining American consular staff continued to
operate under authority of exequaturs issued by
Queen Elizabeth II. Following declaration of a
republic, the United States closed its Consulate
General on March 17, 1970.
In 1971, despite Administration opposition, the
U.S. Congress passed legislation permitting the
United States to import strategic materials,
such as chrome, from Rhodesia. The legislation,
which took effect January 1, 1972, was of little
real economic benefit to the Rhodesian economy,
and the United States continued to support the
balance of the sanctions program. After the
legislation was repealed in March 1977, the
United States once again enforced all sanctions.
The United States supported the United Nations
and the United Kingdom consistently in their
efforts to influence Rhodesian authorities to
accept the principles of majority rule.
Beginning in 1976, the United States began to
take a more active role in the search for a
settlement in cooperation with the British. The
Anglo-American proposals of late 1977, aimed at
bringing a negotiated end to the dispute, lent
the weight of the United States to the search
for a peaceful settlement and were a counterpart
to the Soviet-Cuban use of military power to
increase their influence in southern Africa. The
United States supported British efforts to bring
about and implement the settlement signed at
Lancaster House on December 21, 1979 and
extended official diplomatic recognition to the
new government immediately after independence. A
resident Embassy was established in Harare on
Zimbabwe's Independence Day, April 18, 1980. The
first U.S. Ambassador arrived and presented his
credentials in June 1980. Until the arrival in
1983 of a resident Ambassador in Washington,
Zimbabwe's relations with the U.S. were handled
by its Ambassador to the United Nations (UN) in
New York.
At the Zimbabwe conference on reconstruction and
development (ZIMCORD) in March 1981, the United
States pledged $225 million over a 3-year period
toward the government's goals of postwar
reconstruction, distribution and development of
land, and the development of skilled manpower.
By the end of FY 1986, the United States had
contributed $380 million, the majority in
grants, with some loans and loan guarantees.
However, in July 1986, the U.S. Government
decided to discontinue future bilateral aid to
Zimbabwe as a result of a continuing pattern of
uncivil and undiplomatic statements and actions
by the Government of Zimbabwe in the United
Nations and elsewhere. Aid programs previously
agreed upon were not affected by the decision,
nor were regional development programs that
might benefit Zimbabwe. Full programming was
restored in 1988.
USAID assistance to Zimbabwe since 2002 has
focused on family planning, HIV/AIDS prevention,
democracy and governance programs, emergency
food aid, and assistance to internally displaced
persons. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) began a direct assistance
program in August 2000. CDC's program consists
of prevention of HIV transmission; improved care
of persons with HIV/AIDS; surveillance,
monitoring, and evaluation of the epidemic; and
health sector infrastructure support.
Since 2000, the United States has taken a
leading role in condemning the Zimbabwean
Government's increasing assault on human rights
and the rule of law, and has joined much of the
world community in calling for the Government of
Zimbabwe to embrace a peaceful democratic
evolution. In 2002 and 2003, the United States
imposed targeted measures on the Government of
Zimbabwe, including financial and visa sanctions
against selected individuals, a ban on transfers
of defense items and services, and a suspension
of non-humanitarian government-to-government
assistance. Despite strained political
relations, the United States continues as a
leading provider of humanitarian assistance to
the people of Zimbabwe, providing about $400
million in humanitarian assistance from
2002-2007, most of which was food aid.
President Mugabe visited Washington informally
in September 1980, and on official working
visits in September 1983, July 1991, and in
1995, meeting with Presidents Carter, Reagan,
Bush, and Clinton respectively. He has also led
the Zimbabwean delegation to the UN on several
occasions, including the UN General Assembly in
2008. Vice President George H.W. Bush visited
Harare in November 1982 on a trip to several
African countries.
Principal U.S. Officials
Ambassador--James
D. McGee
Deputy Chief of Mission--Katherine Dhanani
USAID Mission Director--Karen Freeman
Political/Economic Chief--Glenn Warren
Public Affairs Officer--Paul Engelstad
Defense Attaché--LTC Ryan McMullen
Offices of the U.S. Mission
U.S. Embassy (Chancery)
172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare
Tel: 263-4-250-593
Fax: 263-4-796-488
U.S. Agency for International Development
1 Pascoe Avenue Belgravia, Harare
Tel: 263-4-252-401
Fax: 263-4-252-478